IE Myth 2
Laura Fuller (Snow)
Standard Set 1: Basic Myths
- Describe
and compare how the cosmos is created through sacrifice in two different
IE cultures. (150 words min. each culture)
Creating the
cosmos through sacrifice is a common theme across many IE cultures where one of
the first beings is sacrificed by another, often a twin. After the sacrifice, the dismembered body is
used to create the world or the cosmos (Serith 22) .
The Norse
creation story tells of the beginnings as a void, the emptiness, which they
called Ginnungagap. Into the void shot
sparks from the south which met with the frosty rime from the north. When the two met, they coalesced together and
Ymir, the first of the giants, was formed.
The drips of rime formed into Audumla, a cow, and her milk fed
Ymir. She licked the salty blocks of
ice, and in the process freed Buri who was Odin’s grandfather. Odin and his brothers killed Ymir and used
the various parts of his body to create the world (Sturluson
location 556/chapter 4) .
Thus, in the Norse lore, what creates the universe is an act of
sacrifice, in this case of an ancestor, and the body literally becomes the land
of Midgard, the land of men. His blood
became the waters, including the boundary waters. His flesh became the land. His skull the heavens.
An interesting
case of sacrifice creating the cosmos is found in the Roman lore. It should be noted that the Romans engaged
their mythology in relationship to Rome and its founding, and for them Rome
took on aspects of the cosmos (Puhvel 162) . In one story, the twins Romulus and Remus
were building Rome’s city walls. Romulus
was marking where the walls were to stand and Remus, who was upset over losing
the right to name the city after himself, taunted his brother and jumped over
the marks. In anger, Romulus kills his
brother and then, possibly in regret, buries him with full honors (Garcia) . In burying Remus, one version says under the
walls of the city itself on the day that Rome was founded, Remus’ body becomes
part of the cosmos. Livy states that
when Romulus kills Remus for jumping over the wall, he says, “So shall it be henceforth
with everyone who leaps over my walls,” (Livy)
as an omen of the future of Rome.
- Describe
the image of the Otherworld and/or afterlife in three different IE
cultures. How may these images impact your understanding of your own
afterlife beliefs and those of Neo-Pagans in general? (400 words min.)
Greek:
The
Greeks believed their underworld was ruled Hades, who oversaw the collection of
souls to the different parts of the Greek underworld. Tartarus, where the Titans were imprisoned,
is seen as the destination of those needing punishment in the afterlife whereas
those who were deserving of reward went to the Elysium Fields (Hesiod) . A very special few mortals were either
brought to Olympus by the gods, such as Hercules, or immortalized in the stars,
such as Cassiopeia. However most souls
ended up in a place of shadows and fog, the Fields of Asphodel. Homer describes the place of the dead as
“enshrouded in mist and darkness which the rays of the sun never pierce neither
at his rising nor as he goes down again out of the heavens, but the poor wretches
live in one long melancholy night” (Homer) .
Vedic:
Vedic India
believed that the next world had been found by the first Sacrifice, Yama. It is described as a field or pasture where
there was rest and feasting. Unlike most
IE cultures, the Vedic seem to place the world of the dead in “in highest
heaven” (Griffith, HYMN XIV. Yama.) since Yama was said
to have “travelled to the lofty heights above us” where he found a pasture of
“sacred grass” for those who followed.
They Rig Veda also encourages the living to make offerings of soma,
butter, and other rich offerings consecrated through Agni, the sacred fire so
that the living would have a long life among the gods.
Norse:
The
Norse believed that there were many possible destinations for the soul in the
next life. Most of the dead went to
Helheim, or the home of the Goddess Hel.
Helheim is listed in Grimnismal (a saga of the Poetic Edda) as existing
under one of the roots of the world tree (Orchard stanza 14, 23-36) . In addition to Hel’s hall, there was another
part of the realm, Niflhel or Misty Hel, where outcasts were sent. It was said to be cold and misty, a place of
never ending winter. Snorri’s depiction
of the afterlife seems to be one of the places he was most influenced by
Christian teachings. His rendering the
realm of the dead as a land of horror is unique to the other surviving pieces
of lore, and seems to be an attempt on his part to reconcile the lore with Christian
teachings (Ellis-Davidson location 188/introduction). This idea that Hel is a place of torment is
at odds with the fact that Baldr went to Helheim after he was killed by Loki’s
trickery. Baldr, who was considered the
most handsome and best of the gods and was universally loved, has the kenning
Hel’s Companion. In chapter five of
Skaldskaparmal, Baldr’s brother Hermodr travels to Hel to ask the goddess to
release Baldr, and he finds his brother seated at her table enjoying a feast. This gives rise to the view most Germanic
Pagans today have of Hel as the abode of our ancestors rather than a dreary
place of suffering.
Norse
lore points out a specific destiny for those who have died in battle. According to Grimnismal, Freya receives half
of the warriors slain in battle and Odin gets the other half. Odin’s half become the Einherjar, who fight
every day to the death, then rise again to feast and drink and do it all
over. They are his forces that fight
with him at Ragnarok. It is unclear what
Freya does with her half of the battle dead, although since Freya isn’t
considered one of the gods who dies during Ragnarok, one of the theories is
that they become the warriors of the new age.
Many
believe that the other gods and goddesses also claim their favorites from among
the dead and take them to their various halls.
There is nothing in the lore to suggest this, however there are some
sagas that describe various heroes as special friends of certain gods.
My Views:
As
a follower of a Germanic hearth culture, I find it disturbing how many of my
fellow Heathens seem to think that they will end up in Valhalla. While such was considered the earned end for
warriors slain in battle, very few of us today actually die in battle. Often I hear that there are many metaphorical
battles that claim us, and on the one hand I agree with this. But those metaphorical battles may or may not
prepare us for the horror that is the end of the world and the destruction of
the cosmos. I tend to think this view is
born more out of a macho-wanna-be-viking culture than any actual basis in what
our ancestors believed. Instead, I think
that most of us find our end in Hel, welcomed by our ancestors.
Many
pagans have a belief in reincarnation. I
don’t personally believe in reincarnation, nor do I find strong evidence for it
in any of the IE bodies of lore. Rather,
I find evidence that some part of us remains connected to our kin on this plane
when we move on to the next one, and as we gain more knowledge, we do what we
can to continue to aid those we cared about in life. If any part of us returns, it seems to be as
a guardian of our kin. The Norse called
this the hamingja. The hamingja is the
personification of a family’s luck, and passed down between family members (Simek 129) .
- Describe
the raiding of cattle by warriors (or divine reflexes of this action) in
two cultures. How does this theme reflect the culture of the ancient
Indo-European peoples, and is this theme relevant to modern Pagans? (300
words min.)
Irish:
In the epic tale
The Cattle Raid of Cooley, which is the longest tale in the Ulster Cycle, Queen
Medb attempts to steal the great Brown Bull of Cuailnge from Ulster. She is opposed by the hero Cu Chulainn and
his men. The fight for the bull lasts
many years, but in the end Medb’s army is defeated by Cu Chulainn. The Brown Bull eventually fights a White
Bull, owned by Medb’s husband. The white
is killed, and then, after a slaughter of women and children, the Brown also
dies (Dunn) .
Greek:
One instance of cattle raids in Greek
myth is the story hold by Homer of the baby Hermes, within hours of his birth,
stealing cattle from Apollo. To keep
from being discovered, he put boots on the cattle’s feet and hid them in a
grotto where he performed a sacrifice of two of them. He then used their intestines to make strings
for his first lyre which he later traded to Apollo for the herd. (STORIES OF HERMES 1 : Greek Mythology) .
Themes:
Cattle were
associated with wealth in IE cultures. The
first Rune in the Rune Poems, Fehu, is a symbol of material wealth, and is
linked to cattle, which were considered portable, tradable wealth as opposed to
the wealth of land which you couldn’t take with you when you moved (Albertsson) . The meaning of the rune is deeper than just
moveable wealth, though, and I and others think of this not just in terms of
the wealth it represents, but also in the need to use wealth, to let it flow
through the community, rather than to hoard it away where it does nothing but
collect dust.
The Cattle Raid
of Cooley showed the impact greed had on wreaking havoc on the community,
destroying not only the people, including women and children which could be
seen as the future of the community, but the wealth itself. There were ways that raids were supposed to
be done. War for the ancient Irish was
usually accomplished by cattle raids.
They were done by small groups and required cleverness. That cleverness is lacking in the account of
Queen Medb, and so what we end up with is the disaster of a long, bloody war (Daimler ;Introduction: location 117) . However, it was that very cleverness that won
the herd for Hermes so that even as a baby he became a patron of thieves.
There is a
relevant lesson here for modern pagans, especially in Medb’s tale. We need to be aware of consequences and that
desire for a thing can be taken too far.
We may all have to determine what price we are willing to pay for a
thing in money, lives, or honor and accept that some prices are too high. Further, sometimes barter and diplomacy will
allow us to work out a mutually beneficial arrangement, if we are willing to
engage others in the discussion.
- Describe
instances of "freeing" or "winning" the waters in two
different IE cultures. How can this theme be used to reinforce our current
practices and cosmology? (300 words min.)
Snorri
tells the story of the creation of Kvasir.
The story is told in Skáldskaparmál (SKÁLDSKAPARMAL 93-96) . At the end of the war between the Aesir and
Vanir, the gods came together to forge a peace treaty. To seal the treaty, both sets of gods spit
into a vat. The gods kept the vat of
spit and decided it shouldn’t be wasted, so they used it to form a man, who was
named Kvasir (which means to squeeze until the juice flows). Kvasir was very wise and could answer any
question put to him. Kvasir travelled
the world, teaching mankind, and eventually was invited to the home of two
dwarves. The dwarves killed him and
drained his blood into three casks. The
dwarves then mixed the blood with honey, making mead. The mead is taken from the dwarves by
Suttung, a giant. Odin finds out about
this and about the mead, and decides to get it back. Odin burrows into the mountain in the form of
a snake, sleeps with the giant’s daughter for three nights, transforms into an
eagle and flees back to Asgard carrying the mead in his mouth. They Aesir set out three vessels, and Odin
spits the mead into them then transforms back.
When a human pleases him, Odin gives them a drink of the mead, now known
as the Mead of Poetry or Inspiration, and they are gifted with a mastery of
words.
The
Vedic myth of the Rig Veda gives a more general example. In it, Indra slays a dragon Vrtra, who has
been hording the waters for himself and his own kind. In slaying the dragon, Indra frees the water for
all the people. The waters that run down
the mountain and fills the rivers, channels, and oceans (Griffith, HYMN XXXII. Indra.) .
In
ADF when we speak of freeing or winning the waters we are referring to the way
in which the Kindreds give their blessings to the people. It is the Kindreds’ side of the *-ghosti
relationship, the return flow. We use
the symbol of winning the waters to show how the gods share their blessings and
wealth with Mankind. The waters are a
gift in that they carry more than just physical water. For example, the Mead of Poetry carries the
gifts of knowledge and the inner passion of a poet. In winning the waters, we gain whatever
blessings the gods would give us from their support and protection, to their
inspiration and passion.
- Show
two examples in one IE culture of a deity engaging in actions that are
unethical or unvirtuous, and speculate on why the deities sometimes engage
in this type of behavior. (min. 100 words per example)
When I first
started to think about this question, I realized I was approaching my judgement
of deities from a modern American perspective of ethics rather than from the
perspective of the culture from which the stories originated. For example, many gods had non-consensual
sexual relationships or strayed from the marriage bed. While the first is especially abhorrent to
me, even the later makes me question their honor. Yet many cultures at the time had polygyny as
a common family structure.
Upon deeper reflection,
I wanted to choose examples that not only were unethical or unvirtuous to me
and my moral code, but would have been seen that way by the people of the
culture that created the myth. Perhaps
the best example in the Norse Lore of a god acting against the morals and
ethics of the culture are the many escapades of Loki.
Loki is
instrumental in the death of Baldr, who is the son of Odin and Frigg. Baldr has prophetic dreams that he is going
to be killed, and so his mother, Frigg, goes out and gets the promise of every
rock, mineral, plant, and animal that it won’t hurt her son except for
Mistletoe because it was so small and weak she didn’t think it was a
threat. Loki discovers this through
trickery and makes a spear of Mistletoe.
He then gives it to Baldr’s blind brother, Hodr, who accidentally kills
Baldr with the spear when the gods are playing a game. Hodr is killed by his brother, Vali, who was
born to avenge Baldr (Sturluson
Chapter 15, location 1540) .
The moral dilemma
in this story is Loki’s orchestrating the murder of his blood-brother’s
child. The Norse took such relationships
to be as important as birth family. They
were created by oath, which was sacred.
To kill the child of an oath-brother was not only like killing family,
which was a horrible crime, but also breaking an oath given.
The entire
Lokasenna is an example of Loki breaking cultural rules of etiquette and
behavior. Mad at not being invited to
the party, Loki kills a servant and proceeds to mock the entire gathering of
guests. He makes up lies about the
assembled Aesir, many of which were points of honor, even after being asked to
leave. He admits to killing the family
members of some of the guests, accuses them of having inappropriate sexual
relationships such as between siblings, and only leaves when Thor arrives and
threatens him (Orchard) .
In this story,
the rules Loki breaks have to do with hospitality and guesting. As a guest, his insulting the other guests,
not to mention killing a servant, goes against the rules of how a guest was to
behave. The importance of the rules of
hospitality to the Norse can’t be overstated.
When you were staying in someone’s home, you were treated as a member of
the household. They were responsible to
provide for your needs to the best of their ability, and you were to be a good
guest. To behave as Loki did broke perhaps
the fundamental relationship the culture was built on. The one, in fact, that we build our
relationships with the gods in ritual, the *-ghosti principle.
The only reason
that we can guess at for why Loki does these things is that he is acting under
the dictates of fate. In killing Baldr,
we find out he actually is making sure that Baldr is safely in Hel to begin the
world anew after Ragnarok. In being a
horrible guest, he is hunted down by the other gods and imprisoned, waiting
until he can be freed to end the cycle so the world can begin anew. The lesson here being that sometimes bad
things have to be done in order for the world to grow and move on the way it is
destined to.
- Explain
the monomyth (aka "hero cycle") and show how it applies to a
single hero from the IE culture of your choice. (150 words min.)
The monomyth is
the idea that all myths have a cycle of steps that heroes must go through:
separation, initiation, and return.
There are seventeen stages through the cycle of the myth, although not
every myth will have every stage. This
cycle is archetypal and consistent throughout the various cultures of the world.
In our study of Indo-European myths,
many of which are fragmentary, this allows us to begin to guess at what parts
might be missing to time.
In the myth told
in Thrymskvida (The Song of Thrym), Thor awakes to find his hammer missing and
enlists Loki’s aid to retrieve it. They
go to Freya for help so that Loki can borrow her falcon cloak and search for
the hammer. Loki finds Thrym sitting on
a grave mound and asks him if he knows where Thor’s hammer is. Thrym admits to having the hammer and hiding
it and demands Freya in exchange for the hammer’s return. Loki returns to Asgard to share the giant’s
demands. Freya refuses to go, and so
Loki gets the idea to dress Thor up as Freya for the journey (Orchard) . From this point, the story really begins.
Separation:
The Call to Adventure (Campbell 41): Thor is told that if he wants
his hammer back, he’s going to have to go on a journey to get it.
Refusal of the Call (Campbell 49): Thor isn’t loath to go on the
journey, until he hears the crucial detail that he has to go dressed as Freya
at Heimdall’s suggestion.
Supernatural Aid (Campbell 57): Loki was already part of the story,
be he becomes the magically adept traveling companion in the quest.
Crossing the Threshold (Campbell 64): The two of them cross back
into the domain of the giants.
Belly of the Whale (Campbell 74): This isn’t an actual section in
this myth. Rather, it’s wrapped into the
idea that Thor has to pretend to be Freya, that he’s willing to break social
gender norms and dress as a woman in order to do what he has to do: get his
hammer back before the weakness can be exploited by the enemies of the gods.
Initiation:
The Road of Trials (Campbell 81):
The duo arrive in Thrym’s domain and Thor in his guise as Freya is
seated at the giant’s side for the feast.
Thor eats with his usual appetite, and Thrym comments on it. Loki rescues the situation by saying it’s
been eight days since the bride had eaten because she was so excited to come to
her husband. Then Thrym looks at Thor’s
eyes under the veil and is shocked at the red color. Again, Loki has a reason, lack of sleep.
The Meeting with the Goddess (91):
While out of order in this myth, Thor and Loki must gain Freya’s aid in
the loaning of her feather cloak so that Loki can go searching for
Mjolnir.
Woman as Temptress (101): Not applicable to Thor or Loki. One could argue that, if the myth were being
told from the perspective of Thrym, asking for Freya was this part of the
myth. Had he not given in to lust, he
might have managed to keep the hammer instead of giving the most powerful
weapon back to the Aesir, his enemies.
Atonement with the Father (105): Not applicable to this myth. Usually, this is the part where the father
acts as initiating priest sending the child into their adult role for good or
ill (Campbell 116) .
Apotheosis (127): Not applicable to this myth. Usually, this is the point where the human
hero becomes godlike by moving beyond the usual human limitations.
The Ultimate Boon (148):
Thor’s hammer is placed back in his lap to consecrate the marriage. The hammer is a magical creation with the
power to hallow. It is the ultimate
weapon of the Aesir, and without it, Thor cannot perform his duties as
protector.
Return:
Refusal of the Return (167): Not applicable to this myth. Having completed the quest, the hero now
needs to return to the human world so as to share the bounty of new knowledge
with the people. Many do not feel that
humanity can learn the lessons or they are too tempted by the otherworld where
they quested to want to return.
The Magic Flight (170): Now that Thor has his hammer back, he can
get to the smiting which is an important part of any Norse Poem. Many giants die as he fights his way
free. This is the end of the myth.
Rescue from Without (178): Not applicable to this myth. Sometimes the hero needs assistance from
outside in order to be able to make the return journey.
The Crossing of the Return Threshold (188): We tend to see the
world of humans and other realms as distinct.
In order to return, a threshold must be crossed. While not explicitly
stated in the myth, we do know that the Norse perceived Jotunheim as separated
from Midgard by rivers. We can thus
extrapolate that Thor did indeed have to cross a boundary of some form to
return home.
Master of Two Worlds (196): Again, while not explicit in this myth,
there is an understanding that Thor (and the other deities) can pass between
the worlds in various ways (Bifrost, crossing rivers, etc). As Thor is a god and already in possession of
this ability, this section does not rightly apply.
Freedom to Live (205): While
not completely spoken out in this myth, this is very much the theme. Thor, reunited with Mjolnir, is free to live
in the moment and smite the foes of his people with his prize.
Standard Set 2: Applications
- Using
your answer to question 1 above (cosmos creation), create a piece for use
in ritual that describes the process of cosmos creation through sacrifice.
(no min. word count)
Recreating the Cosmos:
Honoring the Fire: Light the Fire
May the sparks that quickened Creation light a fire
within me! Sacred Fire, burn within us!
Honoring the Well: Add silver to the Cauldron
May the Waters of Wyrd that Feed the Cosmos fill us with
life! Sacred Waters, flow through us!
Honoring the World Tree: Incense the Tree.
Yggdrasil, Steed of Odin, Supporter of the Worlds!
Sacred Tree, grow within us!
After slaying Ymir, Odin and his brothers carefully took
the body apart. As they piled his flesh, it grew solid for them to stand
on. His bones they piled into mountains and his teeth became rocks.
His hair took root and became the trees and grasses.
His blood running free became the waters.
Then they took his skull and heaved it aloft to form the
heavens while his brains became the clouds.
We stand here upon his flesh, the World tree grows beside
us connecting Midgard to the Realms of the Gods and the Dead. The rivers
flow beneath and around us, renewing our lives. Here beside us burns the
living flame that transforms our sacrifices and carries them to those we would
praise.
- Using
your answer to question 4 above (winning the waters), create a piece for
use in ritual that describes the winning of the waters. (no min. word
count)
11. Asking for the Blessing
Lady of Asgard, All-Mother,
You sit upon the High Seat and Know All.
Gifts we have shared with you.
Now we would ask that you share your gifts with us.
12. Hallowing the Blessing
Fill this mead with your blessings,
Fill this mead with your knowledge,
Fill this mead with the gifts that will sustain us,
So that all who share in it are renewed.
13. Affirming the Blessing
Frigg, who knows all, knows best what blessings to pour
into our lives.
Frigg, who as Lady of Asgard dispenses boons upon those
who dwell therein.
I drink now and share in her bounty and knowledge.
Works Cited
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Saxon Sorcerer. . Woodbury, MN: Llewellyn Publications, 2011. Print.
Campbell, Joseph. The Hero With a
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Daimler, Morgan. The Morrigan: Meeting
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SKÁLDSKAPARMAL. n.d. 17 April 2015.
<http://www.sacred-texts.com/neu/pre/pre05.htm>.
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Sturluson, Snorri. Edda . Trans.
Anthony Faulks. Everyman Publishers, 1987. Kindle.
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